The Media Under Apartheid

- produced by Jude Geiger

Website References Used

 African National Congress, Allegations of Journalist Norman Chandler Being a Former Police Spy ( 5-2-1997), available at http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pr/1997/pr0502.html

This brief piece explains the presence of spies in media establishments.

African National Congress, Conclusions, available at http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/misc/mediasub.html#CONCLUSION

In its concluding remarks to the TRC, the African National Congress briefly addresses the role of media spies.

African National Congress, The Contributions of the Independent Media, available at http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/misc/mediasub.html#THE%20CONTRIBUTION%20OF%20THE%20INDEPENDENT%20MEDIA

The ANC briefly addresses the contribution of independent media commentary to the struggle against apartheid.

African National Congress, A Few Observations on the Role of the Media, available at http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/misc/mediasub.html#A%20FEW%20OBSERVATIONS%20ON%20THE%20ROLE%20OF%20THE%20MEDIA

As part of its observations, the African National Congress briefly addresses the role of media spies in the South African press.

African National Congress, The Role of Media Under Apartheid (9-1997) available at http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/misc/mediasub.html

The African National Congress submitted a brief to the TRC that specifically focused on the role of the media.

Independent Newspaper Commission, The Brief, Source List, Scope of the Inquiry, Historical Context, The Company Culture, available at http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/submit/inc.htm#section2

The structure of the Independent Newspaper Commission’s on the media are detailed and placed in context.

Independent Newspaper Commission, Collusion With Apartheid, available at http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/submit/inc.htm#section8

The Independent Newspaper Commission’s found that the media at times colluded with the government and portrayed a false picture of liberationist movements that fighting against apartheid.

Independent Newspaper Commission, Conclusions, available at http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/submit/inc.htm#section9

The Independent Newspaper Commission’s concludes that the media both supported and opposed apartheid. Newspapers concerns with commercial viability limited their coverage of liberationist movements and racism existed within media organizations as well as in their coverage.

Independent Newspaper Commission, Efforts to Fight Government Imposed Restrictions, available at http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/submit/inc.htm#section5

This portion of the Independent Newspaper Commission’s report details the methods employed by the press to fight back against government restrictions and portray a more balanced picture of life in South Africa.

Independent Newspaper Commission, Executive Findings, available at http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/submit/inc.htm#section1

The Independent Newspaper Commission’s provides a summary of its findings of media involvement during apartheid in this document.

Independent Newspaper Commission, The Great Divide, available at http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/submit/inc.htm#section7

This portion of the IMC’s findings explains reasons why the mainstream South African media portrayed liberationist movements in a negative light.

Independent Newspaper Commission, Inhibitions of Functioning as a Fully Democratic Press, available at http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/submit/inc.htm#section3

The Independent Newspaper Commission’s details the manner in which the media was restricted and inhibited from performing the full functions of a democratic press during the apartheid era.

Independent Newspaper Commission, Victims of Apartheid, available at http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/submit/inc.htm#section4

The special hearings on the media also found that members of the press were also the victims of apartheid policies. This portion of the report details some of the abuses experienced by members of the media.

Martin, Karen and Moorhead, Kevin, Legislation Which Restricted the Press During the Apartheid Years, (5-1997), available at http://fxi.org.za/archives/2karen.txt

Legislation designed to suppress the media and freedom of the press is explored in this report.

Nix, Jennifer, Actions Against Journalists in South Africa Between 1960 and 1994 (5-1997), available at http://fxi.org.za/archives/detentio.txt

This document details state actions that were taken against journalists by the South African government during the apartheid era.

Republic of South Africa, Government Gazette, ( 2-3-2000), available at http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/2000/a2-00.pdf

In response to South African censorship of media under apartheid, the ANC led government passed the Promotion of Access to Information Act. This act provides a process for accessing government documents and other information.

Times Media Group, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission from Times Media Limited, available at http://rhino.tml.co.za/trc/testy.html

The Times Media Group submitted this report to the TRC to document its opposition to Apartheid. The Times claimed that it promoted peaceful dialogue, provided a multi-dimensional picture of white South Africans, and challenged government versions of the truth.

Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Institutional Hearing: The Media, available at http://www.niza.nl/trc/4chap6.htm

This is the Truth and Reconciliation Commission’s report on the media.

Other Websites of Interest

Beacon for Freedom of Expression, available at http://www.beaconforfreedom.org/search/censored_publications/result.html?author=&cauthor=&title=&country=5458&language=&censored_year=&censortype=&published_year=&censorreason=&Search=Search

This website lists the publications banned or censored by the apartheid regime and their period of restriction.

British Broadcasting Corporation, South Africa: Media, available at

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1071886.stm#media

This website provides a basic profile of South Africa’s current media system.

Brynard, Karin, My Individual YES, Rhodes Journalism Review, available at http://journ.ru.ac.za/review/15/yes.htm

This website explains some of the responses from members of the Afrikaner press to the TRC hearings as well as the resistance to the TRC demonstrated by some Afrikaners.

Collins, Ashleigh, An Evolving Tool of Liberation: South African Journalism ( 9-19-2004), available at http://www.stanford.edu/~jbaugh/saw/Ashleigh_Journalism.html

Stanford student Ashleigh Collins provides an introduction to South African journalism under apartheid and a brief description of the current status of the media

Dispatch Online, Former Apartheid Spy Craig Kotze Joins ANC ( 11-7-2000), available at http://www.dispatch.co.za/2000/11/07/southafrica/DFORMER.HTM

Craig Kotze, after apologizing for his actions later went on to join the ANC. This article details his transformation.

Daley, Suzanne. South Africa’s Press to Face Bias Inquiry, New York Times ( 11-17-1998), available at http://www.nytimes.com/library/world/africa/111798safrica-press.html

This article explains the human rights commission inquiry into racism in the South African media under apartheid. Some journalists interviewed suggest that the hearing was really being held to silence critics of Nelson Mandela.

Dimba, Mukelani, A Landmark Law Opens Up Post-Apartheid South Africa ( 7-17-2002), available at http://www.freedominfo.org/reports/safrica1.htm

A member of the Open Democracy Advice Center criticizes the Promotion of Access to Information Act’s implementation and suggests that the current regime has still left serious barriers to open communication intact.

Du Plessis, Tim, Newspaper Management Keeps Quiet About Its Role in Apartheid: In the Afrikaans Press, Some Reporters Decide to Testify, available at http://www.nieman.harvard.edu/reports/98-4NRwint98/DuPlessis.html

Afrikaner journalists’ complicity in Apartheid and lack of participation and openness in Truth Commission hearings is examined.

Fivaz, George, Media Statement by the National Commissioner of the SA Police, Commissioner George Fivaz, Comment on the Appearance of Director Craig Kotze Before the TRC, (9-18-1997), available at http://www.info.gov.za/speeches/1997/09220W14497.htm

This website provides the official government reaction to Craig Kotze’s testimony before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.

Green, Pippa, An Absence of Women. At Newspapers in South Africa Few Women are On the Top. Some Wonder Why and Ask Why It Matters, Niemann Reports (Winter 2001) available at http://www.nieman.harvard.edu/reports/01-4NRwinter/72-74.pdf

This article explores the historical and continued exclusion of women from top positions in the South African media and their relegation to traditional women’s areas, such as the Women’s Pages of newspapers.

International Freedom of Expression Exchange, FXI Makes Submission to Truth and Reconciliation Commission on Role of Media During Apartheid, available at http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/5160/

The Freedom of Expression Institute explains its findings for the Truth and Reconciliation Commission that the mainstream media failed in its duty to investigate human rights abuses during Apartheid but also was limited by government regulations.

International Freedom of Expression Exchange, Journalists Protest Subpoenas ( 6-21-2001), available at http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/13855

The legacy of media spies in South Africa has a resonance that the press cannot forget. In this website, members of the press suggest that being forced to testify in criminal trials is too similar to being forced to become media spies for the practice to be justified.

Journalism.co.za, Pallo Jordan’s Media Freedom Day Speech, available at http://www.journalism.co.za/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=830

Former cabinet member Pallo Jordan explains the history of South Africa’s anti-apartheid media and its experiences after the end of apartheid.

Louw, Raymond. 1997 World Press Freedom Review, http://www.freemedia.at/wpfr/Africa/southafr.htm#1997%20World%20Press%20Freedom%20Review

In this article, Nelson Mandela’s criticism of black journalists working for the white controlled press is explored. Also, the role of the media under apartheid is discussed.

Louw, Raymond, Dealing With Hostile Readers, available at http://www.globaljournalist.org/archive/Magazine/dealing.html

In this document, Raymond Louw, former editor of the Rand Daily Mail primarily addresses issues in the Palestinian Press. However, he also admits that media spies existed at his newspaper during apartheid.

Makhaye, Dumisani, The Media and Counter-Revolution in South Africa ( 5-5-1997) available at http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/speeches/1997/sp0505.html

Dumisani Makhaye, a member of parliament, criticizes the media for its role in supporting apartheid and its lack of commitment to social justice and political freedom.

The Mail Archive, The Broederbond- Profile of Power ( 6-22-1999), available at http://www.mail-archive.com/ctrl@listserv.aol.com/msg16320.html

This book excerpt details the influence of South Africa’s Broederbond, of which most elite members of the media were members. The Broederbond’s influence may explain why government spies were able to penetrate the media.

Reddy, E.S, Media and Southern African Struggle ( 3-9-1998) available at

http://www.anc.org.za/un/reddy/media.html

The history of South Africa’s alternative media was marked by government suppression of independent publications, but this suppression did not end the demand for anti-apartheid publications.

Republic of South African, History of the Press in South Africa, available at http://www.southafrica-newyork.net/consulate/news.htm#history

This is an official government history of freedom of the press in South Africa. It examines government relations with the English, Afrikaner, and Black media an the Independent Broadcasting Authority Act.

Rhodes Journalism Review, Racism in the Newsroom: Daily News Editor Danny Pather Recalls Having to Run the Gauntlet of Racial Prejudice, available at http://journ.ru.ac.za/review/14/racism2.html

Dennis Pather, Daily News editor recounts his experiences with racism in mainstream South African media outlets.

Rhodes Journalism Review, We are Not Just Journalists, We Have All Been Involved, available at http://journ.ru.ac.za/review/14/extracts.html

Journalists share their thoughts on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission and the media’s involvement in apartheid. The narratives originated in a Media, Truth, and Reconciliation Workshop held in Cape Town.

Rhodes Journalism Review, When Cowboys Cry: Max Du Preez, Hardened Hack Par Excellence, Tells the Story About the Team Doing TRC Special Report on SABC Television, available at http://journ.ru.ac.za/review/14/cowboys.html

Max Du Preez explores the process of creating the television programs upon which the online presentations at Yale Law School are based. He addresses some of the problems he has encountered and the popularity of the shows.

Simmons, Henry, “White Journalists Accept Racial Kraaling,” 2 Contact 23 ( 11-14-1959), available at http://disa.nu.ac.za/articledisplaypage.asp?articletitle=Apartheid+and+the+SASJ%3A+White+journalists+accept+racial+%22kraaling%22&filename=Ctv2n2359

This newspaper article from 1959 explains the participation of white South African journalists in Apartheid and the all-white composition of the South African Association of Journalists.

Windschuttle, Keith, New Insights and Old Nonsense, 19 Ecquid Novi Journal for Journalism in Southern Africa 1 (1998) available at

. http://www.sydneyline.com/New%20Insights%20and%20Old%20Nonsense.htm

Keith Windschuttle defends South African journalists and contends that the fact that some journalists supported the government should not discredit the entire media establishment. The South African experience supports the Windschuttle’s watchdog theory of the press.

Wikipedia, South African Broadcasting Corporation, available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Broadcasting_Corporation

This website explains the history of the SABC and its politics. It also explains how the SABC has changed since the end of apartheid.

Website References Not Used of General Interest

Castelnau, Verane, South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Dispensing Justice in a Post-Conflict Situation, available at http://www.weltpolitik.net/Regionen/Afrika/S%FCdafrika/Analysen/South%20Africa%92s%20Truth%20and%20Reconciliation%20Commission:%20Dispensing%20justice%20in%20a%20post-conflict%20situation.html

This article begins by exploring the history of the TRC process and how the commission was established. It then evaluates the TRC process and outcomes before finally analyzing how the TRC can serve as a model for other conflicts.

CNN.com, After Mandela: South African Elections 1999, available at http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1999/safrican.elections/

CNN developed a detailed website to explore issues in the 1999 South African elections. It also provides useful background about the Truth and Reconciliation Commission and information about political issues faced by the South African people.

Dyzenhaus, David. Debating South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 49 University of Toronto Law Journal 3 (Summer 1999) available at http://www.utpjournals.com/product/utlj/493/493_dyzenhaus.html.

The author addresses how a full inquiry into the horrors of South Africa’s past could promote reconciliation rather than increase hostility. He also addresses how reconciliation could exist without punishment for the perpetrators of apartheid’s abuses. The website has a link that can be used to access other articles on the TRC in the journal.

Facts on File News Service, South Africa ’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission, available at http://www.facts.com/icof/south.htm.

This website provides a brief overview of the TRC process. It includes arguments both in support of and against the TRC’s approach and actions.

Hamber, Brandon & Kibble, Steve, From Truth to Transformation: South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, available at http://www.csvr.org.za/papers/papbhsk.htm

A theoretical background to truth and reconciliation commissions is provided that frames the meaning of the TRC. It then explores the role of the TRC in South Africa, with particular attention given to the amnesty commission and its work.

Hugon, Cyrille, In South Africa, 20 Years After Steven Biko’s Death, The Truth Commission Grapples with Meanings of Justice, available at http://www.columbia.edu/cu/sipa/PUBS/SLANT/SPRING97/hugon.html.

This short article explores the need for the people of South Africa to face their past. It also addresses the difficult need to balance justice and to find a political compromise that will benefit South Africa in the future.

Hunter-Gault, Charlotte, Facing the Past, Online Newshour ( 4-8-1997), available at http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/africa/april97/south_africa_4-8.html.

Halfway through the Truth and Reconciliation Commission hearings, Dullah Omar, South Africa’s Minister for Justice answers questions about the commissions process and success.

Simpson, Graeme & van Zyl, Paul, South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission, in 585 Tempes Modernes (1995), available at http://www.csvr.org.za/papers/papgspv.htm.

The authors are critical of De Klerk’s Further Indemnity Bill, which would have given him the power to pardon any politically motivated crime. They then go on to analyze each of the branches of the TRC commission.

Villa-Vicencio, Charles, Lessons from South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Peace Colloquy 1 (Spring 2002).

The former research director for the TRC explains that peace and legitimate power have to be negotiated and cannot be imposed through military force. The TRC was a better solution to the conflict in South Africa than a blanket amnesty or hearings similar to the Nuremburg Trials.

Vora, Jay A. & Vora, Erika. The Effectiveness of South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Perceptions of Xhosa, Afrikaner, and English South Africans, 34 Journal of Black Studies 3, (January 2004), available at http://jbs.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/34/3/301.

Xhosa participants perceived the TRC to be the most effective while Afrikaner participants found it to be the least effective. Evaluations of English participants were in between the results for the other two groups. The model used by the TRC is evaluated for future uses.